Geothermal energy in Turkey
![Lots of steam rises above metal pipes and vertical cylinders, with a low building and mountains in the background.](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/K%C4%B1z%C4%B1ldere_Geothermal_Power_Plant_in_western_Turkey.jpg/280px-K%C4%B1z%C4%B1ldere_Geothermal_Power_Plant_in_western_Turkey.jpg)
Geothermal energy is a significant part of renewable energy in Turkey: it is used for geothermal heating and generates 3% of the nation's electricity.[1] Turkey is the world's second largest user of geothermal heating, after China.[2]: 51 Many greenhouses, spas and homes are heated by underground water; and many more buildings could be heated in this way.
People have been bathing in hot springs since antiquity. In Turkey electricity from underground steam was first generated in the late 20th century, and 63 geothermal power plants operate in Turkey as of 2022[update].[3] Turkey has almost 2 GW of geothermal power installed, the fourth largest in the world.[4] All geothermal plants are in Western Anatolia,[1] due to its favorable geology.[5] There is potential for 5 GW of geothermal power in total,[5] including enhanced geothermal systems.[6][7]
Carbon dioxide emissions from new geothermal power plants are high in Turkey, as the metamorphic rocks can release carbon, but the emission rate declines over a few years. Public opinion is sometimes against geothermal due to emissions of foul smelling hydrogen sulfide. To reduce the emission of both carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, the fluid is sometimes completely reinjected back into the reservoir.[8]
History
Geothermal hot water has been used in spas since at least the 2nd century BC at Heiropolis,[9] for example Roman baths.[10] Thousands of such hot springs and hundreds of spas have been used for tourism and health (such as balneotherapy for rheumatic diseases[11]) since ancient times, including by the Romans.[12] In 2007 the government published a master plan for thermal tourism.[13]
In 1965, the government's Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration began the first geological and geophysical surveys in southwestern Turkey. The Kızıldere geothermal reservoir, on the western branch of the Büyük Menderes Graben, was found in 1968 to be suitable for electricity generation. A small 500 kW pilot power plant was built in 1974,[14] and free electricity distributed to nearby households. The state-owned Electricity Generation Company enlarged the plant in 1984,[14] to average around 10 MW. In 2008, the plant was privatized to Zorlu Energy with a 30 year operating lease, and they continued increasing the power, so that as of 2022 the Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant remains Turkey's largest.[15][16] In the early 21st century more power plants were built, mostly in Aydın.[17]
In 2007, Turkey passed the Law on Geothermal Resources and Natural Mineral Waters, which accelerated geothermal exploration by making investment easier for the private sector. For example, the law reduced the number of licenses required to two.[18][19]
For plants started between 2010 and 2021 the Renewable Energy Support Scheme feed-in tariff was 10.5 US cent/kWh, guaranteed for ten years.[18] In 2021 the feed-in tariff was changed to lira and reduced.[20]
In 2010 the installed geothermal electricity generation capacity was 100 MW while direct use installations were almost 800 MWt.[21] By 2017 electricity generation capacity had been expanded over tenfold, to over 1 GW; and from 2009 to 2019 the number of geothermal power plants increased from 3 to 49.[22][18]
Geology
Down to a few kilometers under the surface (drilling has been done to almost 5 km[23]: 4 ) most rock is cooler than the boiling point of water, but there are a few high-temperature resources in the Menderes Massif,[14] up to almost 300 °C.[24]: 2 Due to extensional tectonism the highest temperatures are in the west.[23]: 2 There are 16 fields hotter than 130 °C, one in the Marmara Region and the rest in the Aegean Region.[25]: 5 The high geothermal potential is due to the geology of Turkey, such as the radiogenic granites of western Anatolia[26] and the Western Anatolian Graben systems (Büyük Menderes and Gediz Grabens[25]: 5 ). The heat generated by the radioactivity of these granites, which cover over 4000 sq. km, ranges from around 5 to 16 μW/m3.[26]
However the carbon content of non-condensable gases in the geothermal fluids are high at many plants,[27] therefore care must be taken to avoid excessive carbon emissions.
Carbon-dioxide emissions
The geology of the metamorphic rocks of the Buyuk Menderes and Gediz grabens is unusual: especially in acid conditions the calcite in the rocks can release a lot of CO2 into the surrounding very hot water.[28] The CO2 emissions from new geothermal plants in Turkey are some of the highest in the world, ranging from 900 to 1300 g/kWh[29] (similar to coal power) but gradually decline.[30][31][32] According to a 2020 report, these short-term high CO2 emissions can be dealt with.[33][note 1] Measures might include reinjection into the reservoir, or removal methods such as CarbFix.[33][35] Because emissions decline over time the World Bank has estimated that lifetime emissions will be similar to the world geothermal average.[36] The problem is not expected outside these two grabens.[37]: 24
Direct use of heat
![Bathers in a large outdoor pool](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Keramet_Kapl%C4%B1cas%C4%B1.jpg/280px-Keramet_Kapl%C4%B1cas%C4%B1.jpg)
Although in most places the rocks are not hot enough to make steam to generate electricity, almost every region has heating possibilities,[5] with theoretical total potential of 60 gigawatt thermal (GWth – meaning gigawatts of thermal power which means how fast heat is produced[39]).[24]: 1 As low as 40 to 45 °C is used.[23]: 5 Turkey is second only to China in direct use,[40] with almost 4 GWth, including 1120 MWt district heating, 855 MWt greenhouse heating and many spas and hotels.[41] It is hoped that spas will extend the season for tourism in Turkey.[42]
Direct-use heating is mostly district heating serving over 125,000 households. There is also 4.5 million m2 of heated greenhouses; and 520 spas, bathing and swimming pools (1400 MWth).[24]: 5 Further heat is sometimes pumped out of the waste water, for example to heat houses.[24]: 5 With these heated greenhouses crops can be grown even in the coldest areas;[43] tomatoes are exported[44] and fruit dried.[45]
Nevertheless in 2021 the International Energy Agency said that there was still untapped potential to heat buildings,[46] and in 2022 Ufuk Senturk, president of the Geothermal Power Plant Investors Association, said that the number of homes heated could be increased from 160 thousand to a million.[5] According to the Greenhouse Investors and Manufacturers Association there are 5,400 decares of geothermally heated greenhouses (first in the world) as of 2022 with payback in 4 to 7 years, but this could be increased to 30 thousand decares.[47] District heating is sometimes combined with electricity generation, and can save money compared to gas heating.[48]
Power plants in operation
![Map](https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,7,37.8592,28.0716,300x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Geothermal_energy_in_Turkey&revid=1233960159&groups=_aaa3a26f37994b2d501dd99c2e7edaa65ad8a53e)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Electricity_Turkey.svg/220px-Electricity_Turkey.svg.png)
As of 2022 there were 63 plants[3] on 27 geothermal fields.[24]: 4 Turkey is fourth in the world for geothermal power; with about half that of the United States, and slightly less than Indonesia and the Philippines.[4] The regulator is the Energy Market Regulatory Authority.
Almost all geothermal power plants are south or east of Izmir, Turkey's third largest city.[49] Kızıldere is the most powerful, followed by Efeler.[50] Electricity generation potential from hydrothermal (conventional geothermal rather than enhanced) was estimated at 4 GW in 2020, over double the actual capacity.[26]
Two-thirds of the installed capacity uses binary technology (hot water from the ground evaporates a fluid with a lower boiling point which drives the turbines) while the rest use the flash cycle (some of the high pressure and very hot water from the ground "flashes" to steam which drives the turbines directly).[51][23] Suppliers of binary-cycle technology; such as Atlas Copco, Exergy and Ormat; are prominent in the market.[40] At high enthalpy and high temperature combined flash-binary plants are more efficient.[14] Sometimes wells owned by competing companies interfere with each other.[14]
Environmental impact and public opinion
There are both existing and planned plants in areas with vulnerabilities,[33]: 100, 103 such as the valuable soils in Buharkent.[52]
In 2019 Enel sponsored the 88KEYS Institute to conduct a public opinion survey in Aydın, the province with the most geothermal potential.[53] At that time, over a fifth of people over 45 believed geothermal power was damaging to health.[54] About half of that age group also believed that it is not harmful if properly managed, as did about two-thirds of younger people.[54] In the 2010s there were concerns about the possibility of heavy metals being released to water or soil, but as of 2022 no heavy metal pollution from power plants has been found, although boron was found in irrigation water in 2017 which may damage crops.[55] However arsenic has been found in greywater from direct heating and it has been suggested such water could be filtered by biochar.[56]
In 2020 the Ministry of Environment and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development published a guide which recommended various social, environmental and technical best practices, including that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that the concentration of foul smelling H
2S gas in the air should not exceed 7 μg/m3 in an average of 30 minutes. The WHO says that due to the strong public reaction against odor from geothermal power plants and the resulting social perceptions, the odor problem needs to be taken very seriously and solutions need to be implemented. WHO recommended technologies that guarantee the re-injection of the entire source (liquid + non-condensable gases) during operation as the most effective method to prevent gases from being released into the atmosphere.[31] WHO further advised that H
2S could be reinjected together with CO2, as is sometimes done in Iceland.[31] However the carbon price in Iceland is the same as the EU Allowance (around 80 euros a tonne in mid-2022),[57] whereas in Turkey there is no immediate financial penalty for releasing it because there is no carbon price.[58]: 16
Financing
Geothermal has high upfront costs[59] and is financially risky,[60] but if public money is invested at an early stage of a project that gives private investors confidence to complete the financing.[27] In 2022 the World Bank loaned $300 million for geothermal energy,[61] some to private companies via the state industrial development bank Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası.[37][25] According to the Geothermal Power Plant Investors Association the cost of a kilometre deep well is about 1 million USD.[5] However it may be possible to use existing oil exploration boreholes in Southeast Anatolia.[5] The feed-in-tariff is in lira and adjusted quarterly, but capped at 8.6 US cents/kWh.[62] In 2021, the Geothermal Energy Association said that development costs (measured in lira) were increasing 70% annually (official inflation of the economy of Turkey was also about 70% in mid-2022[63]), but that the feed in tariff quarterly increases were not keeping pace; so they called for monthly increases.[64]
Research and development
International conferences on geothermal energy are held most years in Turkey, such as the Women in Geothermal conference in Istanbul[65] and the International Geothermal Energy Congress & Exhibition in Izmir.[66] Dry hot rock geothermal fields in eastern Turkey have not been fully explored[67] and such enhanced geothermal has expensive engineering challenges.[59] It has also been estimated that 30% of Turkish residences could be heated through geothermal energy.[68] Studies show that geothermal energy could also be used for desalination or to produce hydrogen by electrolysis; but as of 2022 this has not been applied practically.[26][69] As Turkey is prone to earthquakes, research on induced seismic risk is also a significant topic, and the increased number of geothermal plants may have caused the increased surface cracks observed in the area.[70] Construction is an important part of the Turkish economy, and it has been suggested that the technology used to produce dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) at Kızıldere and Tuzla geothermal power plants could be adapted to capture CO2 emissions from cement production.[71] Produced dry ice can also be used to fight wildfires in Turkey.[71] Extracting lithium from geothermal water is being researched,[42] to meet some of the demand from increasing battery production.[72]
Development is supported by the World Bank[61] and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development via the Green Economy Financing Facility.[73] As of 2021 further research is needed on CO2 emissions, but projects with estimated average annual lifetime emissions above 540 gCO2/kWh (this is roughly similar to a gas-fired power plant) will not be financed.[37]: 31
Notes
- ^ A European study showing no net increase in CO2 did not include Turkey.[34]
References
- ^ a b Renewables 2021 Global Status Report (Report). REN21. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
- ^ Renewables 2022 Global Status Report (Report). REN21. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 15 June 2022.
- ^ a b "Electricity". Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
- ^ a b Richter, Alexander (10 January 2022). "ThinkGeoEnergy's Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2021 – installed power generation capacity (MWe)". Archived from the original on 23 January 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Cariaga, Carlo (10 March 2022). "Interview with JESDER'S Ufuk Senturk on geothermal in Turkey". Archived from the original on 16 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
- ^ Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, Alper (September 2021). "Carbon Dioxide Emissions Mitigation Strategy through Enhanced Geothermal Systems: Western Anatolia, Turkey". Archived from the original on 10 March 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
- ^ "Turkey's Geothermal Energy Potential and Exploration Studies". General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
- ^ Richter, Alexander (8 June 2021). "Transmark completes 3.2 MW geothermal plant in Canakkale, Turkey". Archived from the original on 7 November 2021. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ "Hierapolis-Pamukkale". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 8 June 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ Cheviron, Nicolas. "Ancient Roman spa awaits flooding in Turkey". phys.org. Retrieved 11 September 2022.
- ^ Adıgüzel, Tuba; Arslan, Beyza; Gürdal, Hatice; Karagülle, M Zeki (1 June 2022). "Evaluation of the therapeutic and the chemical effects of balneological treatment on clinical and laboratory parameters in knee osteoarthritis: a randomized, controlled, single-blinded trial". International Journal of Biometeorology. 66 (6): 1257–1265. Bibcode:2022IJBm...66.1257A. doi:10.1007/s00484-022-02274-6. ISSN 1432-1254. PMID 35347399. S2CID 247767264. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ Boekstein, Mark (2014). "From illness to wellness-has thermal spring health tourism reached a new turning point?". African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure. University of the Western Cape. ISSN 2223-814X. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
- ^ Simpson, David (5 April 2007). "Turkey bids to be world's hotspot for thermal tourism". Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International. Archived from the original on 29 July 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ a b c d e Serpen, Umran; DiPippo, Ronald (1 May 2022). "Turkey – A geothermal success story: A retrospective and prospective assessment". Geothermics. 101: 102370. doi:10.1016/j.geothermics.2022.102370. ISSN 0375-6505. S2CID 246716590. Archived from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
- ^ Kaya, Tevfik; Ali Kindap (2009). "Kızıldere-New Geothermal Power Plant in Turkey" (PDF). International Geothermal Days. Slovakia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 January 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ "Zorlu's geothermal power plant opened". Hürriyet Daily News. 30 September 2013. Archived from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 7 January 2014.
- ^ "Geothermal power plant starts generation". Hurriyet Daily News. Anadolu Agency. 5 April 2010. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
- ^ a b c Eröcal, D; Yegorov, I (2021). Countries in the Black Sea Basin. In UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development (Report). UNESCO Publishing. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
- ^ Servin, Füsun (2021). "How Turkey became a role model for geothermal energy within a decade" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 4 June 2022.
- ^ Richter, Alexander (31 January 2021). "Turkey introduces updated geothermal energy feed-in-tariff rates". ThinkGeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ Serpen, Umran; Aksoy, Niyazi; Öngür, Tahir (1–2 February 2010). "2010 Present Status of Geothermal Energy in Turkey" (PDF). Proceedings of the Thirty-Fifth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. Thirty-Fifth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. Stanford, California: Stanford University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 March 2011. Retrieved 7 July 2010.
- ^ Cariaga, Carlo (22 March 2022). "Development of geothermal in Turkey – UNESCO Science Report, Fusun Servin Tut Haklidir". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
- ^ a b c d Mertoğlu, Orhan (September 2020). "Geothermal Developments and Projections in Turkey" (PDF). Turkish Geothermal Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 December 2021. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
- ^ a b c d e "Geothermal Energy Use: Projections and Country Update for Turkey" (PDF). 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ a b c "Geothermal Development Project (P172827) Additional Finance Loan – Environmental and Social Management Framework" (PDF). tr:Türkiye Sınai Kalkınma Bankası. October 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ a b c d Chandrasekharam, Dornadula; Baba, Alper (7 April 2022). "Carbon dioxide emissions mitigation strategy through enhanced geothermal systems: western Anatolia, Turkey". Environmental Earth Sciences. 81 (8): 235. doi:10.1007/s12665-022-10345-5. ISSN 1866-6299. PMC 8986971. PMID 35411211. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ a b Oliver, Padraig; Stadelmann, Martin (2 March 2015). "Public Finance and Private Exploration in Geothermal: Gümüşköy Case Study, Turkey". Climate Policy Initiative. Archived from the original on 24 March 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Akın, Serhat; Frıdrıksson, Thrainn (10 February 2020). "Characterizing the declining CO2 emissions from Turkish geothermal power plants". 45th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering Stanford University, February 10–12, 2020. Middle East Technical University. Archived from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
- ^ Tut Haklidir, Fusun S.; Baytar, Kaan; Kekevi, Mert (2019). "Global CO2 Capture and Storage Methods and a New Approach to Reduce the Emissions of Geothermal Power Plants with High CO2 Emissions: A Case Study from Turkey". In Qudrat-Ullah, Hassan; Kayal, Aymen A. (eds.). Climate Change and Energy Dynamics in the Middle East. Understanding Complex Systems. Springer International Publishing. pp. 323–357. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11202-8_12. ISBN 9783030112028. S2CID 133813028.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ "Characterizing the declining CO2 emissions from Turkish geothermal power plants" (PDF). World Bank. 28 February 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
- ^ a b c Cumulative Impact Assessment of Geothermal Resources in Turkey Best Practices Guide (Report). Stantec Mühendislik ve Müşavirlik Ltd. Şti. December 2020. Archived from the original on 22 May 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
- ^ Orucu, Yasemin; Hallgrimsdottir, Elin; Merino, Almudena Mateos; Akin, Serhat; Idrissi, Oumaima (2021). "Understanding CO2 Emissions from Geothermal Power Generation in Turkey" (PDF). World Bank group. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
- ^ a b c Cumulative Impact Assessment of Geothermal Resources in Turkey (PDF) (Report). Stantec Mühendislik ve Müşavirlik Ltd. Şti. December 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2021.
- ^ European Commission. Directorate General for Research and Innovation.; Ernst & Young.; RINA Consulting S.p.A.; Vito. (2020). Study on 'Geothermal plants' and applications' emissions: overview and analysis : final report. LU: Publications Office. doi:10.2777/755565. ISBN 9789276041122. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
- ^ Durucan, Sevket; Korre, Anna; Parlaktuna, Mahmut; Senturk, Erdinc; Wolf, Karl-Heinz; Chalari, Athena; Stork, Anna; Nikolov, Stoyan; de Kunder, Richard; Sigfusson, Bergur; Hjörleifsdóttir, Vala (5 April 2021). "SUCCEED: A CO2 storage and utilisation project aimed at mitigating against greenhouse gas emissions from geothermal power production". Rochester, NY. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3819789. hdl:10044/1/89139. S2CID 235375579. SSRN 3819789. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Oumaima, Idrissi; Yasemin, Orucu; Elin, Hallgrimsdottir; Almudena, Mateos Merino; Serhat, Akin; Oumaima, Idrissi (July 2021). "Understanding CO2 Emissions from Geothermal Power Generation in Turkey". Open Knowledge Repository. Archived from the original on 23 January 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ a b c Resettlement Policy Framework for the Turkey Geothermal Development Project – Component 2 – Financial Intermediaries (TSKB) – draft (PDF) (Report). 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ "Keramet Thermal Spring". Bursa Turizm Portalı. Archived from the original on 15 July 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2022.
- ^ "Thermal power – Energy Education". energyeducation.ca. Archived from the original on 13 July 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ a b "Renewables Global Status Report". REN21. Archived from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
- ^ "Türki̇ye'de Jeotermal ...mevcut durum" [Turkish Geothermal ---- current status]. Turkish Geothermal Association (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 23 January 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ a b Cariaga, Carlo (23 June 2022). "EIB holds Renewable Energy and Sustainability Summit in Izmir, Turkiye". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ Sari, Zelal Sahidenur (19 May 2022). "Geothermal Greenhouses in Çaldıran are promising in greenhouse agriculture". Serhat NEWS. Archived from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ Cariaga, Carlo (18 April 2022). "Geothermal greenhouse in Sandikli, Turkey exports produce to Europe". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ Cariaga, Carlo (30 March 2022). "Geothermal Drying Facility starts production in Balikesir". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ "Turkey 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
- ^ Cariaga, Carlo (6 May 2022). "Geothermal greenhouses offer alternative solution to food crisis, Turkey". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ Cariaga, Carlo (18 April 2022). "Mayor of Buharkent, Turkey aims for district heating with geothermal". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ "Türkiye-Jeotermal Elektrik Santralleri Haritası" [Map of geothermal power plants in Turkey]. Geothermal Power Plant Investors Association (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
- ^ "Efeler Jeotermal Enerji Santrali". Enerji Atlası (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ Orhan Mertoglu, Sakir Simsek, Nilgun Basarir, Halime Paksoy (11–14 June 2019). Geothermal Energy Use, Country Update for Turkey (PDF). European Geothermal Congress 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
{{cite conference}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kara, Nida (11 December 2020). "JES, hava ve su kirliliği, maden kıskacında can çekişen bir tarım kenti: Aydın" [Geothermal power plants, air and water pollution, an agricultural city dying in the grip of mines: Aydın]. Yeşil Gazete (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2022.
- ^ Richter, Alexander (18 September 2019). "Results of a research on the perception of geothermal in the region of Aydin, Turkey released | ThinkGeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 6 March 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
- ^ a b "Aydın'da, jeotermal algı araştırması sonuçları paylaşıldı" [Geothermal public opinion in Aydın]. Jeotermal Haberler (in Turkish). 16 September 2019. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
- ^ "Environmental impact of geothermal power plants in Aydın, Turkey".
- ^ "Grey water footprint assessment of geothermal water resources in the southeastern Anatolia region". Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
- ^ "Iceland carbon tax". Legal Pathways to Deep Decarbonization. Sabin Center for Climate Change Law. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
- ^ State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2022. World Bank. 24 May 2022. ISBN 9781464818950.
{{cite book}}
:|website=
ignored (help) - ^ a b ""Supercritical" geothermal could power everything". Energy Monitor. 16 June 2022. Archived from the original on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
- ^ "Renewable Energy Investment in Turkey: Between Aspiration and Endurance". Turkish Policy Quarterly. 27 November 2018. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
- ^ a b "Turkey to Scale-up Renewable Geothermal Energy Generation with World Bank Support". World Bank. 16 December 2021. Archived from the original on 23 January 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2022.
- ^ "Doing business in Turkey: Energy". Norton Rose Fulbright. April 2022. Archived from the original on 20 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ "Turkey's inflation rate hits 73.5 percent". Politico. 3 June 2022. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ Richter, Alexander (5 December 2021). "Turkish geothermal sector sees further development opportunities". Think GeoEnergy. Archived from the original on 26 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ "2021 – Women in Geothermal – WinG Turkey" (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 25 October 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
- ^ "IGC Türkiye". IGC Türkiye. Enerchange Turkey. Archived from the original on 6 June 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
- ^ Öztürk, Şafak (2019). "Evaluation of Geothermal Potential of Turkey using GIS based Multi Criteria Analysis" (PDF). Middle East Technical University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
- ^ Şimşek, Şakir (2009). New Wide Development of Geothermal Power Production in Turkey (PDF). Geothermal Energy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 9 March 2015.
- ^ Karayel, G. Kubilay; Javani, Nader; Dincer, Ibrahim (15 June 2022). "Effective use of geothermal energy for hydrogen production: A comprehensive application". Energy. 249: 123597. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2022.123597. ISSN 0360-5442. S2CID 247151471.
- ^ Ozcelik, Mehmet (3 June 2022). "Induced seismic risk assessment of geothermal energy production, Büyük Menderes Graben, Turkey". Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 15 (12): 1114. doi:10.1007/s12517-022-10033-5. ISSN 1866-7538. S2CID 249285513. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
- ^ a b Baba, Alper; Chandrasekharam, Dornadula (6 March 2022). "Geothermal resources for sustainable development: A case study". International Journal of Energy Research. 46 (14): 20501–20518. doi:10.1002/er.7778. ISSN 0363-907X. S2CID 247306748.
- ^ Kotaro, Hosokawa (15 March 2022). "SK Innovation to build EV battery plant in Turkey with Ford". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
- ^ Kaya, Nuran Erkul (19 April 2022). "EBRD launches €500M financing facility to support green transition in Turkiye". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
External links
- Turkish Geothermal Association
- Turkish Geothermal Energy Association
- Jeotermal Elektrik Santral Yatırımcıları Derneği (Geothermal Power plant investors association)
- Geothermal research
- v
- t
- e
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/120px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg)
Category
- Portals:
Energy
Renewable energy