Commentary on the Apocalypse

The Commentary on the Apocalypse (Commentaria in Apocalypsin) is a Latin commentary on the biblical Book of Revelation written around 776 by the Spanish monk and theologian Beatus of Liébana (c. 730–after 785).^[1] The surviving texts differ somewhat, and the work is mainly famous for the spectacular illustrations in a group of illustrated manuscripts, mostly produced on the Iberian Peninsula over the following five centuries. There are 29 surviving illustrated manuscripts (many incomplete or fragments) dating from the 9th to the 13th centuries,^[2] as well as other unillustrated and later manuscripts. Significant copies include the Morgan, Saint-Sever, Gerona, Osma, Madrid (Vitr 14-1), and Tábara Beatus codices.^[3]

Manuscripts of the work are typically referred to just as a Beatus. They included a Beatus map, a version of the medieval type of world map called the T and O map with added details; this is supposed to have been created by Beatus. It has only survived in some copies.^[4]

Considered together, the Beatus codices are among the most important Spanish manuscripts and have been the subject of extensive scholarly and antiquarian enquiry. The illuminated versions now represent the best known works of Mozarabic art, and had some influence on the medieval art of the rest of Europe. Among modern painters, Pablo Picasso's painting Guernica was inspired by the Saint-Sever Beatus.^[5] The Morgan Beatus (in New York City's Morgan Library) inspired the artist Fernand Léger.[1] , ^[6]

The text was not printed until 1770,^[7] and later translated into Spanish for a side-by-side edition,^[8] but despite modern Latin critical editions,^[9] it has had little influence on biblical studies after the Middle Ages.

We know very little about Beatus' life. The leading expert John Williams writes:^[10] "We even lack proof of his responsibility for the Commentary on the Apocalypse. Nowhere does it carry his name..." The work as it has come down to us in the Beatus manuscripts consists of several prologues (which differ among the manuscripts) and one long summary section (the "Summa Dicendum") before the first book, an introduction to the second book, and 12 books of commentary, some long and some very short. Beatus states in its dedication to his friend Bishop Etherius (like Beatus, an "Adoptionist" in terms of church doctrine) that states the work is meant to educate his brother monks. This dedication is the best evidence of Beatus as the author.

Beatus divided the biblical text into 68 sections or storiae, of around a dozen verses. The Vulgate text was written out, then followed by an illustration, after which came his commentary on the section. It is now generally agreed that the illustrations were included from Beatus's original version(s) onwards, although only later manuscripts have survived. This includes the map, though it is an exception, as it illustrates no biblical passage.^[11]

The text was evidently read aloud in monastic refectories during meal times; it was usual for various texts to be treated in this way.^[12]

The commentaries are built around selections from previous Apocalypse commentaries and references by Ticonius (now mostly lost), St. Primasius of Hadrumetum, St. Caesarius of Arles, St. Apringius of Beja, and many others. There are also long extracts from the texts of the Fathers of the Church and Doctors of the Church, especially Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose of Milan, Irenaeus of Lyons, Pope Gregory I, Saint Jerome of Stridon, and Isidore of Seville. From the later 10th century onwards, one "line" of manuscripts adds Jerome's Commentary on the Book of Daniel, and a large genealogy of Christ, both illustrated (see below), and sometimes also a commentary on the books of Ezekiel, but these are not strictly part of the Beatus.

The creative character of the commentary comes from Beatus' writing of a wide-ranging catena of verses from nearly every book of the Bible, quotes of patristic commentary from many little known sources, and interstitial original comments by Beatus. His attitude is one of realism about church politics and human pettiness, hope and love towards everyday life even when it is difficult, and many homely similes from his own time and place. (For example, he compares evangelization to lighting fires for survival when caught far from home by a sudden mountain blizzard, and the Church to a Visigothic army with both generals and muleskinners.) His work is also a fruitful source for Spanish linguistics, as Beatus often alters words in his African Latin sources to the preferred synonyms in Hispanic Latin.

Illustrations are believed to been included in the earliest manuscripts of the work, now lost. Williams cautions against talking of a consistent style in the manuscripts; though the subjects and often compositions remain much the same, the artistic style tends to follow wider developments across southern Europe, with a clear Romanesque style in later manuscripts. This is especially the case with the depiction of figures.

The features most associated with Beatus manuscripts are whole page and double spread illustrations with backgrounds in broad strips of bright, flat, primary colours. These are not found in earlier manuscripts, where illustrations often occupy less than the width of a page, and figures have a blank background within a simple border.^[13] The San Millán Beatus was illustrated in two phases, over a century apart, and shows this stylistic progression within a single manuscript.

It is thought that a significant development in the illustrations took place in the mid-10th century at the San Salvador de Tábara Monastery, whose remains are now the church of Santa Maria, in Tábara, Zamora, Spain, probably led by the monk-painter Magius. An effusive tribute to Magius by his pupil Emeterius is written in the fragmentary Tábara Beatus (only 8 miniatures surviving), which Magius left unfinished at his death in 968, and Emeterius completed.^[14] The Morgan Beatus (c. 945) is thought to be all by Magius, and the Gerona Beatus by Emeterius and the nun Ende, who signed it; this was finished in 975. Apart from these three surviving MS made by the Tábara team, there are thought, on the basis of textual analysis, to have been three others, now lost.^[15]

The innovations at Tábara included new subjects, and a move to miniatures that occupied a full page, or spread across two pages, this last being something not known from any earlier books. The "polychromatic striped backgrounds that characterize the so-called Mozarabic style of illumination" now appear; the Morgan Beatus is nearly complete, with 68 full-page miniatures, and 48 smaller, and so the best exemplar of this phase.^[16] Magius was probably influenced by his contemporary Florentius of Valeránica, who worked about 150 miles away to the east, borrowing both some images and some of his prefactory text from the León Bible of 960, illustrated by Florentius and an assistant.^[17]

Images new to Beatus manuscripts found in the Beatus and clearly taken from the León Bible of 960 (or a very similar MS) include a set of Evangelist portraits of a distinctive type, the text and decorative illumination of an extensive genealogy of Christ (over fourteen pages with about 600 names), and a set of images illustrating Jerome's Commentary on the Book of Daniel, the text of which was also included.The Morgan Adoration of the Lamb also takes distinctive features of the León Christ in Majesty.^[18]

• 
  Page from the Silos fragment, the earliest survival, c. 885.^[19] Opening of the Fifth Seal
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  Unusual miniature from the Tábara Beatus, c. 970; the monastery tower there, with three people working in the scriptorium
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  The Ascension of the Two Witnesses, Morgan Beatus (c. 945)
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  Opening of the Sixth Seal, Gerona Beatus, by 975

The Kingdom of Toledo fell in 711, leaving most of the Iberian Peninsula in the hands of Muslim conquerors.^[20] Christians under Pelayo managed to establish the Kingdom of Asturias on the northern coast, protected by the Cantabrian Mountains, initially the only Christian state on the peninsula.^[20] Beautus lived in the Cantabrian valley of Liébana.^[20] With the recent conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, the Apocalypse and the symbolism in it took on a different meaning. The beast, which had previously been believed to represent the Roman Empire, for Iberian believers now became the Caliphate, and Babylon was no longer Rome, but Córdoba.

Revelation is a book about the Church's problems throughout all ages, not about history per se. In the middle of Book 4 of 12, Beatus does state his guess about the end-date of the world as 801 AD, from the number of the Holy Spirit plus Alpha, as well as a few other calculations, although he warns people that it is folly to try to guess a date that even Jesus in the Bible claimed not to know.^[21] This expected date, or 800 AD, was shared by many Christians at the time, although the papacy and church authorities discouraged such speculations.^[22]

Probably dying in the last years of the century, but after 785, Beatus did not quite live to see his guess disproved, but in the next century the approach of the year 1000 raised widespread concern across Europe that this would see the start of the events prophesied in Revelation; there is a particular concentration of Beatus manuscripts dated to about 950 to 975. After the millenium failed to produce, some 11th-century forecasters switched to 1033, as being 1000 years after the death and Resurrection of Jesus.^[23]

In continuity with previous commentaries written in the Tyconian tradition, and in continuity with St. Isidore of Seville and St. Apringius of Beja from just a few centuries before him, Beatus' Commentary on the Apocalypse focuses on the sinless beauty of the eternal Church, and on the tares growing among the wheat in the Church on Earth. Persecution from outside forces like pagan kings and heretics is mentioned, but it is persecution from fellow members of the Church that Beatus spends hundreds of pages on. Anything critical of the Jews in the Bible is specifically said to have contemporary effect as a criticism of Christians, and particularly of monks and other religious, and a good deal of what is said about pagans is stated as meant as a criticism of Christians who worship their own interests more than God. Muslims are barely mentioned, except as references to Christian heresies include them.

There are 35 surviving copies, 27 of which are tabled below.^[24][25] Williams (building on the work of other scholars, especially Wilhelm Neuss) estimates there were once about a hundred illustrated copies, and the "family tree" he illustrates shows divergence into two, then three, branches before 900, with differences both in the text and the artistic style. The earliest surviving fragment, at the abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos, is already from about a century after the work was written.^[26] Two were produced in modern Portugal (one is the Apocalypse of Lorvão dated 1189) and the Saint-Sever Beatus in southern France, near the modern Spanish border.^[27] There appear to have been three manuscripts made in southern Italy in the 11th century.

• Beatus of Navarra.^[42] (Beatus of Liébana - Navarra Codex). Circa 12th century, 60 illuminations.^[42] Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris.^[42] Ms. Nouv. Acq. Lat. 1366^[42]
• Beatus of Turin. (''Beato de Turín^[43]) (Beatus of Liébana - Turin Codex^[43]) Held at Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria, Turin.^[43] J.II.1 (olim lat.93).^[43] 214 folios, 360 x 275 mm, 106 miniatures^[43] Date of creation unknown. 12th century.^[43]
• Rylands Beatus [R]: Manchester, John Rylands Library Latin MS 8), ca. 1175.^[44]
• Cardeña Beatus. (Beatus of San Pedro de Cardeña^[29]). (códice del Monasterio de San Pedro de Cardeña, Burgos).^[45] Ca. 1180. Document split up; many pages unaccounted for. Currently accounted for folios are dispersed between collections in 1) Museo Arqueológico Nacional in Madrid Ms. 2. (127 folios), 2) Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (15 folios), 3) the private collection of Francisco de Zabálburu y Basabe (2 folios), 4) Museu d’Art de Girona in Girona (1).^[46] A facsimile edition by M. Moleiro Editor has gathered them all to recreate the original volume as it was.^[46] The Museo Arqueológical Nacional reports that the Diocesan Museum of Gerona has a folio and the Collection Heredia-Spínola of Madrid has a folio-and a-half.^[47]
• Beatus of Lorvão [L] written in 1189 in the monastery of St Mammas in Lorvão (Portugal); Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Lisbon.
• Las Huelgas Beatus. (Beatus of Liébana - Huelga Codex^[48][49]). Circa 1220.^[49] 90+ miniatures, The Morgan Library & Museum, New York.^[49] M. 429^[49][50] Produced in royal monastery of Las Huelgas, probably commissioned by the queen Berengaria of Castile, sister of Alfonso VIII.^[49] (Not the Morgan Beatus, see above)
• Arroyo Beatus Copied 1st half of the 13th century, c. 1220 in the region of Burgos, perhaps in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña. Paris (Bibliothèque nationale) NAL 2290 and New York (Bernard H. Breslauer Collection).

• Beatus of Alcobaça. ALC. 247 Not illustrated.
• Beato ACA. Not Illustrated.
• Beato de Sahagún. Fragments. Not illustrated.

• Genevan Beatus.^[51] Kept at the Bibliothèque de Genève.^[51] 'Ms. lat. 357.^[25] Circa mid-to-late eleventh century.^[25] Originated in South Italy, Beneventan region.^[25] 97 Folios in 13 books.^[25]
• Berlin Beatus. (Beatus of Liébana, Berlin Codex^[52]). (Beatus Commentary written in Carolingian script with Beneventan notations).^[25]Kept in Staatsbibliothek, Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin.^[52] Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561^[25] 12th century.^[52] 98 Folios^[52] One of three Beatus manuscripts made outside Iberian Peninsula.^[52]
• Beneventan Beatus fragment.^[53] Kept at Milan, Archivio di Stato Rubriche, Notarili 3823, fol. 2v.^[25]

• Saint-Sever Beatus.^[54] (Beatus of Saint-Sever^[29][54]). Illustrated by Stephanus Garsia (and other unnamed). Kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris.^[54] C. 1038.^[54] Alternate dates include 1060–1070. Ms. Lat. 8878.^[54]

The Commentary on the Apocalypse strongly influenced the Guernica of Picasso.^{[55][56][57][58]}

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  Escorial Beatus, f. 108v: Worship of the beast and dragon
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  Osma Beatus, f. 139: The Frogs
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  Urgell Beatus, f. 82v: Noah's Ark
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  Valladolid Beatus, f. 120: The Angel of the Fifth Trumpet: "And the fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star fall from heaven unto the earth: and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit" (Revelation, 9.1)
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  Facundus Beatus, page 410: Adoration of the Mystical Lamb on Mount Zion: A lamb stood on the Mount Zion and to one-hundred-forty-four thousand, having cytharas
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  Facundus Beatus, f. 224 (detail): "And the woman was arrayed in purple and scarlet, and decked with gold and precious stone and pearls, having in her hand a golden cup full of abominations, even the unclean things of her fornication, and upon her forehead a name written: «Mystery, Babylon the Great, the mother of the harlots and of the abominations of earth.»" (Revelation, 17.4–5)
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  Facundus Beatus, f. 186v: "And there appeared a great wonder in Heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars: And she being with child cried, travailing in birth, and pained to be delivered. And there appeared another wonder in Heaven; and behold a great red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads" (Revelation, 12.1–3)
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  Facundus Beatus, f. 6v: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty." (Revelation, 1.8)
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  Facundus Beatus, f. 240: "And I saw heaven opened, and behold a white horse; and he that sat upon him was called «Faithful» and «True», and in righteousness he doth judge and make war. His eyes were as a flame of fire, and on his head were many crowns; and he had a name written, that no man knew, but he himself. And he was clothed with a vesture dipped in blood: and his name is called The Word of God." (Revelation, 19.11–13)
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  Osma Beatus, f. 151 The victorious Christ
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  Urgell Beatus, f. 209 (detail): Siege of Jerusalem by Nebudchadnezzar
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  Facundus Beatus, f°43v, The great Theophany
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  Urgell Beatus, f°198v–199 The new Jerusalem, the river of life
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  Facundus Beatus, f°253v The new Jerusalem
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  Beatus de Valladolid, f°93 The four horsemen
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  Facundus Beatus, f°135 The four horsemen
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  Facundus Beatus, f°171v The monstrous beasts
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  Facundus Beatus, f°145 The elect and the angels restraining the winds

• Boyett, Jason (2005). Pocket Guide to the Apocalypse: The Official Field Manual for the End of the World. Relevant Media Group. ISBN 978-0-9760357-1-8.
• Castro Correa, Ainoa (2020). "The scribes of the silos apocalypse (London, British library, add. MS 11695) and the scriptorium of silos in the late eleventh century". Speculum. 95 (2): 321–370. doi:10.1086/707906. hdl:10366/155075.
• O'Neill, John P., ed. (2003). The Art of Medieval Spain, 500–1200. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
• Strandberg, Todd; James, Terry (2003). Are You Rapture Ready?. New York City: Dutton. ISBN 978-0-525-94737-0.
• Williams, John, The Illustrated Beatus: a corpus of the illustrations of the commentary on the Apocalypse. 5 Volumes. Harvey Miller and Brepols, 1994, 1998, 2000. Art books attempting to document all the Beatus illustrations in all surviving manuscripts. Due to expense, most illustrations are reproduced in black and white. Unfortunately, Williams was uninterested in Beatus' text, and thus spread some misconceptions about it, but his art scholarship and tenacity are amazing. His books' influence on most of this Wikipedia article is strong.
• Williams, John (2017), “Visions of the End in Medieval Spain: Introductory Essay.” In Visions of the End in Medieval Spain, edited by Therese Martin, 21–66. Amsterdam University Press, 2017, JSTOR free access. This is Williams' final summary, several years after his main work.

• Commentarius in Apocalypsin. Ed. Henry A. Sanders. Papers and monographs of the American Academy in Rome 7 (Rome: American Academy in Rome, 1930). The first critical edition of the commentary. Latin.
• Beati Liebanensis Tractatus de Apocalipsin. Ed. Roger Gryson. Corpus Christianorum: Series Latina 107 B-C (Turnhout: Brepols, 2012). Two volumes of a new, improved and up-to-date critical edition of the commentary's text. Latin and French.
• Commentary on the Apocalypse - Part I. Trans. M.S. O'Brien. (2013). English translation of Books I and II. Includes many sources and quotes not noted in Gryson.

• "Beato de Liébana: códice de Fernando I y Dña. Sancha". World Digital Library (in Latin and Spanish). Retrieved 2014-03-01.
• In Apocalypsin, 1770 edition of the Commentary. Latin.
• A selection of the most relevant Beatus, advertisement for facsimile editions
• Illuminations of Beatus
• Works of Beatus

• Arroyo Beatus
• Arroyo Beatus Archived 2017-01-04 at the Wayback Machine Another way to view
• Ms. 33 Beato de San Millan de la Cogolla.
• Ms. 33 Beato de San Millan de la Cogolla. (Select images)
• Ms. 33 (black and white images)
• Ms. Cod. & II.5 Escorial Beatus of San Millán.
• Ms 644 Morgan Beatus. Click on image to access all pages.
• Ms 1097 B Beatus of San Salvador de Távara. Click on image to access all pages.
• AHN CODICES,L.1097 Beatus of Tábara
• Códice 44 Beato de Lorvão
• Ms. 433 Beatus of Valcavado Click on image to access all pages.
• Ms. 26 Urgell Beatus. Click on image to access all pages.
• Ms. 7 Gerona Beatus (Girona Beatus) Click on image to access all pages.
• Vit. 14-1 Beati in Apocalipsin libri duodecim. (Emilianenses Codice)
• VITR 14.2 (pdf)Beato of Liébana: Codice of Fernando I and Dña. Sancha. (Facundo/Facundus)
• Add MS 11695 British Library access to Beatus of Santo Domingo de Silos.
• Add MS 11695 Beatus of Santo Domingo de Silos. Click on image to access all pages.
• Ms. lat. 357 Geneva Beatus.
• Miniatures from the Rylands Beatus
• Ms. 2. Cardeñas Beatus Some of the 135 folios online at the Museo Arqueólogico Nacional
• Cardeñas Beatus 15 folios at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
• ALC. 247 Beatus of Alcobaça. Not illustrated.
• Beato ACA Not Illustrated.
• Beato de Sahagún Not illustrated.
• MS 429 Huelgas Apocalypse
• MS 429 Huelgas Apocalypse